Flax, from which linen is made, is one of the oldest agricultural plants in the world. Over 5000 years ago the Egyptians named it “woven moonlight”, due to its very singular beauty. A little less poetic, but all the apter, is the Latin appellation: “linum usitatissimum” – the extremely useful flax plant.

Flax has been used in the Middle East since the fifth millennium BCE. In Egypt, its role was probably more important than in many other cultures, as Egyptians rarely used wool and cotton was unknown during much of their ancient history. It was seen as a gift of the Nile, as the Hymn to Hapi has it: People are clothed with the flax of his fields.

Through time linen has persisted. Its history is also closely interwoven with the Bible stories. Linen has always been held in reference as an emblem of purity, and it is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament.

Linen is the most ancient vegetable fabric known to man. For centuries people have been growing flax to make fiber and weave linen. But despite its venerable age flax remains to be as young as ever.

Cotton Fibers

The oldest cotton fibers and boll fragments, dated from around 5000 B.C., were discovered in Mexico. In 5 B.C., the Greek historian Herodotus reported of a plant that “bore fleece.” Cotton has been worn in India and Egypt for over 5,000 years. Cotton was grown by Native Americans as early as 1500. In England in the 1700s, it was against the law to import or manufacture fabric made of cotton since it was a threat to the sheep and wool industry.

American colonists were able to grow lots of cottons, but processing was difficult. It was not until the 1700s that the cotton industry flourished in the United States. It was then that Samuel Slater, an Englishman, built the first American cotton mill. These mills converted cotton fibers into yarn and cloth.

In 1793, Eli Whitney developed the cotton gin, which mechanically separates the seed from the lint fiber. Whitney named his machine a “gin,” short for the word “engine.” Technology has improved over the past centuries making cotton growth and production much more efficient

Wool Fibers

Over 8,000 years ago people domesticated sheep. Sheep were one of the first animals to be herded by humans. Sheep helped provide people with food, clothing, and shelter. As humans moved from place to place, sheep were easy to herd and take with them.

Buying and selling wool cloth was important to many areas. As early as 4,000 B.C. woolen cloth was being used in the city of Babylon. Babylon means “land of wool.”

Manmade Fibers

The history of man-made fibers is less than a century old; until 1910, there were no synthetic or chemical fibers. Today, by mixing different components, manufacturers can take the basic fibers listed below and make them more waterproof or more absorbent, warmer or cooler, thicker or thinner, stiffer or more supple. Some, like polyester and spandex, combine well with natural fibers, making fabrics that wrinkle less or are more form-fitting.

Hi-tech, very strong fibers such as Kevlar and Cordura were developed for industrial use, but they are now being used for active outerwear for many extreme sports and activities that require a high degree of resistance to abrasion.

• Synthetic fibers are artificial and use up natural resources such as coal and oil
• Synthetic fibers can be made to have many properties and are very versatile
• Synthetic fibers are poor absorbers of liquids owing to their polymer origins (polymer is very like plastic)

Main properties of Synthetic fibers and fabrics

Synthetic fibers can be developed to have many different appearances and properties. They can be made as filament or staple fibers ; they can be bulked or comped to give more volume; they can be made up as microfibers; and they can encapsulate chemicals, perhaps to give antibacterial properties or to be perfume scented.

Because synthetic fibers are plastics based, they have thermosetting and thermoplastic properties. These allow the fibers to be manipulated using heat, to create permanent pleats in fabrics and add textures, similar to some listed below:

• Polyamide

  • Physical: Strong, hard-wearing, good elasticity, thermoplastic, does not decompose, melts as it burns, resists most alkalis, but can be damaged by strong acids
  • Aesthetic: Versatile, can be made into many finishes
  • Fabric names: Nylon, Tactel, Tactel Micro
  • End use: Clothing, Ropes, Carpets and rugs, Seat-belts, and sports belting
  • Advantages: Strong when wet, Durable, Reasonably inexpensive, Resists bacteria
  • Disadvantages: Poor absorbency, Can be damaged by sunlight, making it discolour and become weaker.

• Polyester

  • Physical: Very strong when wet and dry, flame resistant, thermoplastic, does not decompose, Resists more alkalis unless very concentrated, but is damaged by strong acids
  • Aesthetic: Versatile, can be made into many finishes
  • Fabric names: Terylene, Polyester fleece, Trevira, Finesse, Miratec, Dacron
  • End-use: Wide range of textile products
  • Advantages: Strong when wet, dries quickly, Cheap, Hard0wearing, Resists bacteria
  • Disadvantages: Very poor absorbency

• Acrylic

  • Physical: Strong but weaker when wet, thermoplastic, shrinks from heat and burns slowly, then melts
  • Aesthetic: Soft, can be made into fine and coarse staple fibers
  • Fabric names: Caourtelle, Amicor
  • End-use: Knitwear and knitted jersey fabrics, Toys, fake-fur products, Upholstery fabrics, Anti-bacterial socks and sportswear
  • Advantages: Can be made warm, insulating and soft
  • Disadvantages: Poor absorbency

• Elastane

  • Physical: Very elastic, lightweight but still very strong, resists chemicals and biological damage from perspiration, Very hard-wearing
  • Aesthetic: Medium to coarse filament fibers
  • Fabric names: Lycra
  • End-use: Swimwear, sportswear and all clothing that may require extra elasticity, such as easy fit jeans or fitted blouses (Elastane fibers are always combined with a higher percentage of another fibers in these products, e.g. stretch jeans are 96% cotton/4% elastane)
  • Advantages: Very stretchy, keeps its shape, can resist sun and sea, lightweight but strong
  • Disadvantages: Very poor absorbency

Man-made fibers are fibers in which either the basic chemical units have been formed by chemical synthesis followed by fiber formation or the polymers from natural sources have been dissolved and regenerated after passage through a spinneret to form fibers. This fibers came to success when the researchers obtained a product by condensation of molecules presenting two reactive aminic groups with molecules characterised by two carboxylic reactive groups.

The fiber came to success when the researchers obtained a product (polymerized amide, from which the name polyamide) by condensation of molecules presenting two reactive aminic groups (hexamethylenediamine) with molecules characterized by two carboxylic reactive groups (adipic acid). In order to be differentiated from other polymers belonging to the same chemical class, this polymer was marked with the acronym 6.6 which indicates the number of carbon atoms (that is 6) in the two molecules forming the repetitive polymer unit.

Polyester fiber

This is the most important man-made fiber, with a production of 22 million tons in 2003 (58% continuous filament/42% staple fiber), which since some years overcame cotton production. The number of plants installed in the world is estimated already now at more than 500.

Another aspect of considerable importance under the geographic-economic point of view is the fact that 75% of the production is located in Asia. Polyester wrung the record of most produced synthetic fiber out from the polyamide fiber already in 1972 when it reached a share of 65% in the synthetic fiber market. Its success is due to its particular characteristics, to its versatility in the various application sectors and to the relatively low raw materials and production costs.

Polyamide fiber

This fiber category practically opened the textile market to fibers with no connection to the world of nature.

The production, performed worldwide by about 300 plants, amounts to 3,9 million tons (2003) and is distributed into polyamide type 6 (about 60%) and polyamide type 6.6 (about 40%); it is composed mainly of the continuous filament (85%), against 15% of staple fiber. The major producing countries are still Europe and USA (45% of the market).

Acrylic fiber

The production of this fiber is estimated at 2,6 million tons (2003) and West Europe is still today the area with the highest production (30%).

This fiber found its main use in the traditional wool sectors and is being produced in practice only in form of discontinuous or staple fiber.

It shows negligible production increases and consequently, its share in the man-made fiber market fell from 20% in 1970 to 9% in 2002.

Polypropylene fiber

This is the last-born man-made fiber and, as it is used also in near sectors (as in the plastic industry), its importance in the textile sector was not always adequately monitored. In fact, even excluding such sectors, the production for merely textile uses (carpeting, clothing, technical uses) can be estimated at 3,0 million tons and shows steady growth rates. The most significant producer areas are Europe and USA.

Other man-made fibers

Within the group of fibers with high-tech performance, the elastane fiber (spandex) stands out for its characteristics of elongation and elasticity: its consumption in 2001 has been estimated at 160.000 tons.

Aramid fiber

Aramid fiber is one of the most famous materials among super fibers in addition to carbon fiber.

It is divided into para-aramid and meta-aramid.

Para-aramid has high elasticity and ultra-high strength, and meta-aramid has excellent heat resistance, flame retardancy and chemical resistance

Usage: 

– Para-aramid : Body armor, Military combat suit, Optical cable shield, Composite material (Construction, civil engineering, automobile, aircraft, hull, etc.), Automotive parts (brake pads, clutches, etc.)

– Meta-aramid : Protective clothing (heat resistant suit, fire suit), Filters, Aircraft interior materials (blankets, sheets), Automobile parts (tire frame, hose reinforcement, speaker damper), Electrical insulation tape

Aramid fibers are appreciated for their mechanical and fireproof properties (consumption estimate in 2001: 33.000 tons), while carbon fibers are used in composite materials for hi-tech applications estimated consumption in 2001: 13.000 tons).

Elastane is produced mainly in Korea and in Taiwan (other producers: USA, Japan, Germany); aramid and carbon fibers are mostly produced in the USA and in Japan.

Manmade Fiber Classification

 

Characteristics and usage of Manmade Fibers

Type	Characteristic	Major Uses
ACETATE	Luxurious feel and appearance A wide range of colors and lusters Excellent drapability and softness Relatively fast-drying Shrink-, moth-, and mildew-resistant	Apparel: Blouses, dresses, and foundation garments. Lingerie, linings, shirts, slacks, sportswear. Fabrics: Brocade, crepe, double knits, faille, knitted jerseys, lace, satin, taffeta, tricot. Home Furnishings: Draperies, upholstery. Other: Cigarette filters, fiberfill for pillows, quilted products
ACRYLIC	Soft and warm Wool-like Retains shape Resilient Quick-drying Resistant to moths, sunlight, oil, and chemicals	Apparel: Dresses, infant wear, knitted garments, ski wear, socks, sportswear, sweaters. Fabrics: Fleece and pile fabrics, face fabrics in bonded fabrics, simulated furs, jerseys. Home Furnishings: Blankets, carpets, draperies, upholstery. Other: Auto tops, awnings, hand-knitting and craft yarns, industrial and geotextile fabrics.
ARAMID	Does not melt Highly flame-resistant High strength High resistance to stretch Maintains its shape and form at high temperatures	Hot-gas filtration fabrics, protective clothing, military helmets, protective vests, structural composites for aircraft and boats, sailcloth, tires, ropes and cables, mechanical rubber goods, marine and sporting goods.
BICOMPONENT	Thermal bonding Self-bulking Very fine fibers Unique cross sections The functionality of special polymers or additives at reduced cost	Uniform distribution of adhesive, Fiber remains a part of the structure and adds integrity, Customized sheath materials to bond various materials, Wide range of bonding temperatures, Cleaner, environmentally friendly (no effluent), Recyclable, Lamination/ molding / densification of composites.
LYOCELL	Soft, strong, absorbent Good dyeability Fibrillates during wet processing to produce special textures	Dresses, slacks, and coats.
MELAMINE	White and dyeable Flame resistance and low thermal conductivity High heat dimensional stability Processable on standard textile equipment	Fire Blocking Fabrics: Aircraft seating, fire blockers for upholstered furniture in high-risk occupancies (e.g., to meet California TB 133 requirements) Protective Clothing: Firefighters’ turnout gear, insulating thermal liners, knit hoods, molten metal splash apparel, heat resistant gloves. Filter Media: High capacity, high efficiency, high-temperature baghouse air filters.
MODACRYLIC	Soft Resilient Abrasion- and flame-resistant Quick-drying Resists acids and alkalies Retains shape	Apparel: Deep pile coats, trims, linings, simulated fur, wigs, and hairpieces. Fabrics: Fleece fabrics, industrial fabrics, knit-pile fabric backings, non-woven fabrics. Home Furnishings: Awnings, blankets. Carpets, flame-resistant draperies and curtains, scatter rugs. Other: Filters, paint rollers, stuffed toys.
NYLON	Exceptionally strong Supple Abrasion-resistant Lustrous Easy to wash Resists damage from oil and many chemicals Resilient Low in moisture absorbency	Apparel: Blouses, dresses, foundation garments, hosiery, lingerie and underwear, raincoats, ski and snow apparel, suits, windbreakers. Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, carpets, draperies, curtains, upholstery. Other: Air hoses, conveyor and seat belts, parachutes, racket strings, ropes and nets, sleeping bags, tarpaulins, tents, thread, tire cord, geotextiles.
OLEFIN	Unique wicking properties that make it very comfortable Abrasion-resistant Quick-drying Resistant to deterioration from chemicals, mildew, perspiration, rot, and weather Sensitive to heat Soil resistant Strong; very lightweight Excellent colorfastness	Apparel: Pantyhose, underwear, knitted sports shirts, men’s half hose, men’s knitted sportswear, sweaters. Home Furnishings: Carpet and carpet backing, slipcovers, upholstery. Other: Dye nets, filter fabrics, laundry and sandbags, geotextiles, automotive interiors, cordage, doll hair, industrial sewing thread.
POLYESTER	Strong Resistant to stretching and shrinking Resistant to most chemicals Quick-drying Crisp and resilient when wet or dry Wrinkle- and abrasion-resistant Retains heat-set pleats and creases Easy to wash	Apparel: Blouses, shirts, career apparel, children’s wear, dresses, half hose, insulated garments, ties, lingerie and underwear, permanent press garments, slacks, suits. Home Furnishings: Carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillowcases. Other: Fiberfil for various products, fire hose, power belting, ropes and nets, tire cord, sail, V-belts.
PBI	Highly flame resistant Outstanding comfort factor combined with thermal and chemical stability properties Will not burn or melt Low shrinkage, when exposed to flame.	Suitable for high-performance protective apparel such as firemen’s turnout coats, astronaut space suits, and applications where fire resistance is important.
RAYON	Highly absorbent Soft and comfortable Easy to dye Versatile Good drapability	Apparel: Blouses, coats, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, millinery. Rainwear, slacks, sports shirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes. Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, blankets, carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets, slipcovers, tablecloths, upholstery. Other: Industrial products, medical, surgical products, non-woven products, tire cord.
SPANDEX	Can be stretched 500 percent without breaking Can be stretched repeatedly and recover original length Light-weight Stronger and more durable than rubber Resistant to body oils	Articles (where stretch is desired): Athletic apparel, bathing suits, delicate laces, foundation garments, golf jackets, ski pants, slacks, support and surgical hose